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The word culture is derived from the Latin cultura (from the root colere: to cultivate, to inhabit, to take care of, to nurture, and to keep), indicating that it has a connection to "agricultural" as well as religious devotion. Culture has been almost synonymous with religion for most of history. Prior to the modern era, culture was not just one aspect of existence, but a full way of life that was tightly linked to religion. Weber attributes Western capitalism's origins to Calvinism's ascetic tendency and the concept of labor as a calling. As capitalism matured, the religious drive became divorced from the labor ethic, and religious austerity gave way to unfettered hedonism. Weber attempted to convey the fundamental changes that accompanied the advent of Western capitalism with the phrase "the disenchantment of the world." Employment had become religion by Henry Ford's time, and today "culture has supplanted both religion and work as a method of self-fulfillment or as a justification—an aesthetic justification—of existence" for the "modern, cosmopolitan man" (Bell 1976:156). Religion lost its public character as a result of the separation of church and state and the secularization of society, and it became a matter of personal belief and a private concern for each individual. As a result, modernity signified a significant rupture with the past. Both religion and culture became the topic of social scientific inquiry at the time when they were separated from religion. In other words, culture has only become a theoretical issue for the West because it has already become a social issue (Milner 1994:4).
Since its start, anthropology's overarching notion has been culture. The sociological study of culture, on the other hand, has only recently come into its own. The absence of a uniform definition of "culture" has been a major issue. In their critical assessment of this most important notion in cultural anthropology, Kroeber and Kluckhohn ([1952] 1963:149) collected over 300 definitions of culture. Radcliffe-Brown (1957) went even farther, denying the existence of a science of culture, claiming that "culture can only be studied as a property of a social system." As a result, if you're going to have a science, it should be one of social systems" (p. 106). Following Radcliffe-(1957) Brown's lament that "the word culture has undergone a number of degradations which have rendered it unfortunate as a scientific term," Leslie White ([1954] 1968) settled on a nominalistic definition: "Culture, like bug, is a word that we may use to label a class of phenomena—things and events—in the external world." We may use this title anyway we like; its application is controlled by ourselves, not by the outside world" (pp. 15–16). Unlike Kroeber and Kluckhohn, who saw culture as "intangible abstractions," White ([1954] 1968) insisted on distinguishing between the conception of culture and what it stands for: "Culture as the name of a class of objective and observable things and events in the external world," and "the conception of culture [that is] in the mind of the culturologist." Let us not confuse one with the other" (p. 20). Anthropologists, on the other hand, have continued to be perplexed by problems like these:
"Is culture real or just an abstraction from reality? If real, then what is the nature of this reality, and where does this reality have its locus? If an abstraction, then how can we speak of it as influencing the behavior of individuals? (Kaplan [1965] 1968:20)"
Earth Day influenced which of the following laws?
A
the Clean Air Act, which controlled air pollution
B
the Stamp Act, which taxed printed paper in the American Colonies
C
the Civil Rights Act, which ended segregation and discrimination based on race
D
the Equal Rights Amendment, which guaranteed equal rights for citizens no matter their gender